Peeling back Jerusalem's most ancient layers...

I set out a theory and proof that ancient occupiers of the sparse hills of Jerusalem, with significant help from their regional allies constructed substantial elements of the Massive Fortified Corridor (MFC), adjacent to the Gihon Spring specifically to discourage Israel's return.

A conclusive theory of Jerusalem's Middle Bronze (MB) to Iron Age period continues to evade archaeologists and historians. One study by Hillel Geva tracks the development of Jerusalem's population and provides an excellent overview of the areas the city expanded to through the ages. I will use the breadcrumbs of population growth, as found in Middle Bronze age archaeology to reconstruct the first period of the city’s development.

Bewildering is the absence of any archaeological trace of a Middle Bronze western city wall in the presence of the MFC adjacent to the Gihon Spring on the eastern slope. Perhaps even more complex is the scant evidence of a complete eastern city wall, one that should have certainly left significant traces at intervals.  I will demonstrate that the MFC was not constructed to protect water as per common logic, but to serve another motive.

The massive Middle Bronze II (MB II) fortress erected around the Gihon Spring undoubtedly required a major economic effort and substantial manpower (Boas-Vedder 2001; Reich 2011: 248–261). This does not mean that the inhabitants of the city were necessarily the builders of the massive structures; much of the manpower may have been recruited from the hinterland (Geva 2014). Although Uziel lead research to carbon date construction of the north-east corner of the fortress, an MFC extension to the Iron Age 800-900 B.C.E, there remains significant evidence that progression of construction from MBII to completion at the northern end may have occurred in the Iron Age.

Israel Finkelstein shares the view that the MBII fortress and area around the Gihon Spring remained somewhat independent of the expanded city. The old mound of Jerusalem was located on the Temple Mount (Ophel) and activity on the City of David ridge (the southeastern hill of Jerusalem) was restricted to the area around the Gihon Spring (Finkelstein, Koch and Lipschits 2011) In other words he supports the view that a complete MB II city wall, which has not yet been discovered, may not have existed at that time.

Figure 1 - Middle Bronze II - Warren Shaft System, Fortification and Gihon Spring.
To align see (E) in Fig.2 below.

Coming out of the upper tunnel (Tunnel VI) moving to the eastern slope, a traveler finds himself outside (north) of the MFC rather than on the path leading into it, as one would expect if the corridor had already been built before the Warren Shaft System (WSS). This indicates that parts of the WSS existed and part built before the MFC. Since the corridor is known to be Canaanite in age, it follows that the WSS must also be of Canaanite age. (Dan Gill 2011)

With periodic increases in Mount Moriah's population (since the Early Bronze Age 1 - L.H. Vincent Underground Jerusalem) and geopolitical changes in the region, this hill eventually became one of the city-states that ruled in the region. In the face of the prevailing political rivalries from within and without, city rulers embarked on a comprehensive, state-funded, integrated program to protect the city and its vital water resources. Presumably, the city walls, the spring tower and MFC, as well as the Siloam Channel, were built during these stages. (Dan Gill 2011)

This invokes many questions, particularly related to evidence the Parker-Vincent expedition of 1909 uncovered, much of which has been principally ignored by Israel's modern archaeologists.

Figure 2 - Parker and Vincent map with photo overlay, sitting at position [K-21-b] (above)

An amateur researcher would be hard pressed to find any archaeological reference to Jerusalem's oldest private cave dwelling, but for a 1909-1911 photo of Parker and Vincent. This photo exposes [K-21-b] on the Vincent map, a private cave dwelling elevated ~20m above the valley floor on the eastern slope of Mount Moriah, south of the Gihon Spring. The cave dwelling (K) dates back to the early bronze age. It is barely referenced by Ronny Reich in his recent book Excavating the City of David - Where Jerusalem's History Began. Vincent also discovered pottery and tombs on the mountain that were dated to 3000 B.C.E.  None of these finds date later than the Early Bronze Age.

I rely on the hypothesis that this initial private cave dwelling K was developed by and for important occupants because of its substantial size and features relative to the period of its construction. On this and evidence discovered in the immediate areas around this cave dwelling, I reconstructed the progressive development logic of population growth in the area.

Parker and Vincent excavated K as well as extensions L, M and passage N, adjacent to the more recently excavated area east of L, K, J and P. This area south of the, Rock-cut Pool(Fig. 1) forms an elevated platform ~3m above the top step that leads (on its eastern end) into the Round Chamber (within the Rock-Cut Pool) (Fig.1) also marking the lowest part of the expanded Rock-Cut Pool.

Figure 3 - Lower section of Parker and Vincent overlay map on Reich-Shukron Figure 1 map

Figure 3 is a rough context map of the entire complex including important elements missed by the  Parker-Vincent excavation. The Middle Bronze age is a critical period in the development of this site, but the areas missed by Parker-Vincent, those (south) adjacent to G were excavated by Shukron in 2008-10. The most recent excavations (the circled area) are fundamental elements in the logic of these staged progressions.

The birds eye view in Figure 3 includes (what was) an impassable access corridor rising from lower elevation J-P to a temple complex on high ridge G-H. In area F (lower level) excavation reached the bedrock and exposed a number of steep bedrock steps, on several of which were potsherds from Middle Bronze Age IIB. (Shukron, Uziel, Szanton 2013) and Kathleen Kenyon's trench excavation immediately north of Wall 17 revealed potsherds dating to MBII (Reich).

The mapped complex of Fig.3 at the City of David. Kidron Valley foreground.
Orange line - a potential path across the bedrock escarpment
 to between Plateau P and upper ridge sections

Kathleen Kenyon's Wall 17 on bedrock
north of Temple Complex on upper ridge

The descending section of the east-west corridor marked XVIII, at lower elevation P-XXI appears to have been disconnected such that its eastern end (as it approaches P) terminates as a sheer rock face that rendered the upper part of the corridor inaccessible. The missing section may have once connected this steep corridor between lower and upper elevation. (see image below)

The impassable, disconnected corridor.
Lower-eastern section has been reconstructed to connect P with G

Following the logical path from C to E to G (including via external passage at E) a well thought-out plan was implemented to improve upon natural karstic elements and combine them into an accessible  water supply system that became known as Warrens Shaft, (Dan Gill). Although the complex of rooms excavated at G were completed by 2011, no archaeologist report has ever been published, but the temple features of this complex overwhelmingly support its spiritual importance.

Returning to the Rock-cut pool of Figure 1, the MBII channel and Round Chamber preceded the expansion of the pool to its present day boundaries (Reich attributes this expansion to the Iron Age). The eastern stepped access into the expanded pool and more humble Round Chamber suggests the Chambers original elevation may have once been level with adjacent plateau's north and south (as indicated, by red outlines in Figure 4 below).

Figure 4 - Shukron, Uziel, Szandton excavations enhanced and labeled

Looking (south) over the Round Chamber, tourist walkway sunken into Rock-cut Pool.
Fallen boulders (right-west) illustrated green in Figure 4

Figure 5 - Indicative depth of original Round Chamber edge (north-east)
level with northern adjacent plateau and entry of MBII Tunnel III

Round chamber entry of Iron Age Tunnel IV (left) and MBII Tunnel III (right)

The expansion of the Round Chamber into the Rock-cut pool, which disconnected the lower section of corridor P-G would have rendered the P plateau and cave dwelling K inaccessible from its opposite northern plateau (that supports the remains of MFC - Fig.5). Further, the high ridge of area G would have become inaccessible from any of the lower reaches on the eastern slope of Mount Moriah and the Kidron Valley. This or any renovation may have occurred at a date later than MBII, perhaps very Late Bronze (LB) or Iron Age (IA) (Reich).

In the video above Ronny Reich confirms that Middle Bronze Age access to water in the Round Chamber would have been via WSS to the MFC plateau (before the MFC was built). The cave’s opening is sealed but may have been accessible in antiquity (Uziel). At the same level, MFC plateau was level with and part of the P plateau. Quarrying the the Rock-cut pool and construction of MFC would have cut internal access between the WSS and plateau P.

It would have been convenient to quarry and extract the rock surrounding the Round Chamber to form the Rock-cut Pool in order to construct the MFC on its adjacent northern plateau. Was this part of their thinking? The deep chasm of the Rock-cut pool cut access and the added MFC divided the entire mountain to the south placing more emphasis on north-west expansion of the city. This is further evidenced by the existence of wall constructs that blocked access along Parker corridor XIX at the point the fortification corridor abutted city walls that were constructed in the Late Bronze or early Iron Age.

Having been slowly established during the Bronze Age on the lower, southern end of the eastern face of Mount Moriah, people, who were now more technically capable were on the move to expand the walls of the city north as the Iron Age was gathering pace. If we accept the hypothesis that this was the pattern by which Jerusalem became more populated then we can understand this atypical development model for a location so prominent in history. Atypical because countless archaeologists who have worked on or studied these excavations coalesce that water protection was the motivation for fortification around the Gihon Spring, but I suggest this was not the case.

The effort to quarry the Rock-cut Pool and construct adjacent fortification corridors that cut the eastern slope, separating south from north was herculean (Boas-Vedder 2001 and Reich 2011). Regional labor, at subsidized cost would have been imported to the city, but only if the ~900 inhabitants (Geva) of MB Mount Moriah had good reason to inspire and undertake such significant development. Note: The Rock-cut pool is cut deeper on the southern, northern and western edge. Storing water was not the reason for these deep cuts because the eastern edge, perhaps as much as ~2m lower dictated the highest water level in the pool.

Given Dan Gill's observation "...that Coming out of the upper tunnel (Tunnel VI) to the eastern slope, a traveler finds himself outside (to the north) of the MFC rather than on a path leading into it...", protecting water does not seem to have been the objective of the MFC construction. Although Early Bronze developments may have cast the die, at any reasonable MB, LB or IA date, geopolitical objectives must have been strongly aligned to inspire regional powers to support the construction of such a substantial infrastructure push to the north.

In summary we have structural evidence of;

1. a deep cut quarry on 3 sides of the Rock-cut Pool leading to Round Chamber
2. access impasse from rock plateau supporting MFC to plateau of cave dwelling K
3. eastern city wall's or foundations but not western
4. fortification corridor blocking XIX and abutting an eastern city wall north of G
5. disconnected corridor joining P with G
6. misalignment of fortification corridor south of and adjacent to the Gihon Spring water source

On the high ridge at G the stone-cut, beam, oil press is juxtaposed with the undisturbed matzevah or massebah and rock frame (see matzevah image below) that was placed directly on the bedrock at some point after the stone-cut rooms had been completed.

A 2013 excavation along XIII west of G unveiled a weight
which may have been used for the oil, beam press as depicted

Dating of the rooms carved on the high ridge could be as far back as Early Bronze IV such that the  development chronology on the mountain may resemble the following.

1. Early Bronze I
 – 3300-3050 B.C.E. – sparse, periodic settlement
2. Early Bronze II-III
 – 3050-2030 B.C.E. sparse, prolonged settlement including private dwelling K
3. Early Bronze IV/Middle Bronze I
 -2300-2000 B.C.E. - permanent settlement, bedrock chiseling at high ridge
4. Middle Bronze IIA 2000-1750 B.C.E
. – expanded settlement, early use of area G high ridge, expansion of WSS, Gihon tunnels
5. Middle Bronze IIB-C 1750-1550 B.C.E.
 – excavation of Round Chamber and expanded area G features constructed on the high ridge
6. Late Bronze I – 1550-1400 B.C.E.
 – development on east face, commencement of city walls
7. Late Bronze IIA-B 1400-1200 B.C.E.
 – commence construction of city walls, Rock-cut Pool and MFC
8. Iron Age I 1200-1000 B.C.E.
 – completion of MFC, expansion along valley floor,  tower and city walls
9. Iron Age II – 1000 – 586 B.C.E.
 – water system rearrangement, internal city construction, expansion North and eastern outer wall

At some point after the construction of rock-cut rooms at G, perhaps MBI or MBII the matzevah discovered by Shukron would have been constructed on the bedrock at G.

Matzevah at G

An inventory of items located north to south in 4 rock-cut chambers at G (see southwest corner in Figure 4) include;

1. beam, oil press (external east wall of animal pen)
2. small animal pen (room enclosure)
3. altar platform, grain press, liquids channel leading to pit (tunnel exit west)
4. animal ties (thread through rock corners)
5. matzevah (see picture above)
6. grain press, oil press, V markings in bedrock floor (exit tunnel west)

Eli Shukron in the now famous room with V markings
exit tunnel west in the north west corner of room

The significant rock-cut and matzevah features in the chambers at G indicate, at least MB use as a temple for high volume worship. Its large scale construction on the high ridge overlooking the Kidron Valley once announced its importance. The scant population of Mount Moriah cannot be have motivated such a significant rock-cut construction, therefore it is more likely it's location and cultural importance attracted people from the region that motivated its construction. Given the dominant nature of this early element of the scheme in Figure 3 especially its relationship to the southern end, it is surprising that the Rock-cut Pool and MFC cut the eastern slope, obfuscating access to area G's rock-cut  rooms.

Curiously the next Figure 5 scheme of excavation presents corridor 1,2 and 3. We have discussed corridor 1 previously as the east-west disconnected P-G corridor marked XVIII in Figure 3. However, corridor 2 terminates at the western deep cut edge of the Rock-cut pool and corridor 3 terminates prematurely into an apparent dead-end. The evidence suggests access to the water below from the temple on the high ridge at G was important. As demand for access was growing additional corridor excavation may have been undertaken. Nevertheless, these excavations are incomplete and 1,2,3 defined here as corridors may simply follow the bedrock slope to their termination points.

Figure 5 excavation area scheme with G and matzevah as indicated - click to enlarge

Relying on the structural evidence above and stratum data provided in the references used, we must establish credible reasons why;

1. the Round Chamber was quarried to establish the Rock-cut pool
2. lower vital connecting sections of corridor 1 (P-G @ XVIII) were cut and corridor 2 terminated at the western quarry edge of the Rock-cut pool
3. the MFC adjacent to the Gihon Spring was undertaken.

Therefore, I posit the following chronological hypothesis;

1. That Mount Moriah was settled in accordance with 1-3 of the chronology above during EB.
2. That MB I reasons for permanent settlement began to materialize, but that these were not fundamentally based on demand for water, but on soft-cultural, spiritual demands as evidenced by Geva's population estimates.
3. That cave dwelling K and early features of the temple at G began servicing spiritual demands
4. That the Round Chamber and channel from the Gihon Spring were constructed to service increasing transient demand during MB IIA-B
5. That the matzevah was erected during MB IIB-C
6. That eastern walls, the Rock-cut pool and MFC were constructed toward the end of LB

Finally the reason for MFC and Rock-Cut-Pool were entirely geo-political, they served little practical purpose. At least the MFC and eventually the Rock-Cut-Pool was entirely required by regional leaders to cut the eastern slope and access to the Bronze Age temple on the high ridge at area G. The next video supports my claim.

Ancient Chronology of Jerusalem's Holy Rock

As updated October 2018

Believe it or not, you are looking at Jerusalem's Mount Moriah. This once deserted mountain, nested among others is one rock from top to bottom between an eastern and western valley. On its lower eastern face, near the water of the Gihon Spring its first permanent cave dwelling, a living space with three sleeping quarters was carved neatly in the mountainside rock. A narrow single access passage provided a concealed entry for its inhabitants. The dwelling must have passed through generations, but the periodically and sporadically occupied mountain mostly remained desolate and the cave empty of inhabitants.

Mount Moriah looking North

Bronze Age Cave Home

An important spiritual practitioner, perhaps an oracle, a priest and healer occasionally attracted visitors. Higher up the steep east facing slope, a ridge, a platform overlooked the water of the Gihon Spring as it ran along the Kidron valley floor. It became the meeting place for worshipers and advice seekers. Temporarily dwelling on the mountain they sought advice, prayed, brought sacrificial offerings and moved on.

Bronze Age artisans chipped away the bedrock of the ridge on the eastern face until hollow spaces formed depressions in the rock. The depressions were enlarged, shaped into rooms exposed to the sky. More rock-on-rock workmanship eventually smoothed vertical walls from the hollowed spaces, until the depressions became rectangular and bedrock walls arose from the bedrock floor that had been lowered by the artisans.

A low bedrock platform in room 3 was preserved by the artisans, it is the foundation of an altar and supports the holy purpose of the 4 rooms . Two rooms (1&3) preserved access to the rear (west), rising, undulating bedrock ridge, perhaps to facilitate movement of people, supplies or animals to be sacrificed.

Temple Zero complex on the high ridge

Archaeologist recently revealed that the openings in the rear (west) of room 1 and room 3 provided access to the rising bedrock (follow green arrow in images below). Iron Age houses were built on top of the rear bedrock, but the evidence uncovered proved they were destroyed during events of the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem. Their rudimentary basements penetrated to the spaces, near bedrock, at the rear of room 1 and 3, but their occupants never accessed these four rooms because in 2008 Eli Shukron discovered these rooms had been purposely buried in soft sand, concealed by a false wall on their eastern front, which he deconstructed.

In the rear opening of room 1, clay weights, once used as part of a weaving loom were discovered (Ronny Reich). Immediately north of this ridge Kathleen Kenyon excavated a trench behind a Middle Bronze Age wall in which pottery shards and hundreds of broken artifact idols were uncovered, but her dig did not discover these rooms.

Green Arrow (left) leads from the opening in rear of Room #1

The features chiseled into the bedrock were confirmed to have been made by rock implements and may have been added progressively. At some point after completion of room 2, a unique matzevah (massebah) or standing stone was placed onto the bedrock. This matzevah has been standing in its place, on the bedrock of the high ridge ever since it was first erected, preserved by the soft sand burial. Most likely this area was preserved before the Babylonian destruction, because it was cleared of artifacts and void of any destruction layer evidence found in the Iron Age rooms to the west.

Temple Zero with Matzevah

How long did room 2 exist before the matzevah was placed? Did room 2 serve an initial purpose other than for the placement of the matzevah? To answer some of these questions we will explore the Bronze Age cave home and ridge complex to chronologically estimate whether they were contextually related.

The cave dwelling on the lower eastern face was first re-discovered by Colonel Montague Parker and Père Vincent between 1909-1911. In the only published picture of the cave he is seen sitting with backer and writer Valter Juvelius. Although this cave was preceded by smaller paleolithic sites on the eastern face, this Chalcolithic to early Bronze Age cave is considerably more sophisticated.

Jerusalem's first mansion

To the north, an early Bronze Age tomb and advanced pottery were discovered by Parker-Vincent. The pottery and cave indicate the importance of the occupants and their relative prominence.

The living area of the cave dwelling and 3 sleeping quarters can be seen @ K 19,20,21 (bottom left)  of the map that Vincent compiled during his excavations. The rectangular area marks the site of the present excavations immediately west of the four rooms on the high or upper ridge (circled). 

In the Bronze Age water was first channeled from the natural Gihon Spring, on Mount Moriah's  eastern face to the round chamber that was eventually expanded to become the rock cut upper Gihon pool.

Round Chamber seen from above in bottom of picture

Round Chamber, narrow section of Upper Gihon Pool (north section)

Geophysical context for image above

The expanded upper Gihon pool, adjacent and north of the cave dwelling was apparently constructed to hold water and spill excess to the stream along the valley floor. However, water pressure and  mountain slope are unlikely to have filled much more than the lower sections of the round chamber. Bones of kosher animals, fish and many pictorial bullae were discovered in the pool. 

Red line denote north-south division preventing access to the High Ridge

Between the Cave dwelling and Upper Gihon Pool archaeologists have re-established an ancient stepped structure that was purposely quarried and terminated. It must have been the original access on the eastern face of the mountain.

Access from Cave Dwelling to High Ridge was terminated, now reestablished

Significantly and curiously the next major construction (to the north) appears to be the fortress above and over the Gihon Spring (House) and some of the eastern walls surrounding the city. The bedrock features left (south) of the red line, which were rediscovered by Eli Shukron and Ronnie Reich in 2008 have not been rendered into the black rectangle in the next artist impression and many artist interpretations like this fail to incorporate their significance. The impression below approximates the later Bronze, early Iron Age city around the time of Biblical Joshua.

Black rectangle marks area south of the red line

Archaeology clarified that water sourced from the Gihon Spring was not necessarily the object of the significant Gihon Fortress (David Citadel) construction. The image and map below demonstrates that water was originally channeled from the Gihon (left-north) to the middle Bronze Age Round Chamber (right-south of rock "B") and from there it flowed east to the valley floor. Once this became the default channel, the previous route may have been blocked to prevent water entering the Round Chamber, which expanded to the rock-cut upper Gihon pool, but excess water to the valley floor continued to flow freely.

See  location of Rock B in map below

The map below demonstrates the round chamber of the rock-cut upper Gihon pool (grey box) was first fed by Tunnel III. Channel II and Channel I indicate the by-pass discussed in the image above, which flowed water to the lower pool (adjacent to rock "B" located in map below). It also shows the Spring Tower Fortification (cream color) made of large boulders constructed on top and adjacent to the older grey rock-cut bedrock elements.

Water does not appear to have been the motivating reason for construction of the very significant Fortification adjacent to the Gihon Spring because water continued to flow to the valley floor during the Iron Age II until the reign of Hezekiah.

Fortification corridor looking west

The remaining Fortification massive boulders (image above - looking west) are neatly arranged up the steep eastern slope to eventually butt up to the city wall. This significant construction appears to have been designed to stop north-south access (across the red line) to the high ridge. The ultimate construction completely blocked access to the high ridge, including from the original lower bedrock of the now quarried upper Gihon pool and prioritized water flow to the lower Gihon pool, most likely blocking water flow to the upper pool.

The motivation for this most significant, multi-national, labor intensive construction of the Fortification corridor favors obfuscation of the high ridge and cave dwelling complex on the eastern face of Mount Moriah.

Whether or not the high ridge was obfuscated prior to or by King David or revealed during King David's reign or by Hezekiah during the construction of his channel remains unknown. However, matzevot, standing stones (like the matzevah on the high ridge) were not permitted after the period of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, as clearly commanded in the Bible.

Well before Herod, Solomon-David or Joshua, there was a matzevah erected on the high ridge of the eastern slope of Mount Moriah in a location that included a substantial cave dwelling and temple complex that was once used for regular holy worship. Temple Zero pre-dated temple one or two by more than 1000 years and is attributed to the time of Biblical Malchi-Tzedek.

The Matzevah is most likely the one erected by Jacob and the subject of many articles at this blog.

Bethel - Cause of Israel's Greatest Disaster?

Red routes through Benjamin's land connected west-east,
north-south and defines the "quarters" in Joshua 18:14-15

Benjamin's tribal land included the northern section of Mount Moriah. The southern part, marked near the Gihon Spring was Judah's territory and it included Luz or BeitEl (Bethel) (2Kings23:4). At the time Israel's tribal land boundaries were allotted by Moses and Joshua, Mount Moriah was occupied by Jebusites. Benjamin's territory served as a major traffic junction for people traversing the Judean ridge. The geophysical details are clearly described in the video below:

The precise location of Bethel (Luz according to Genesis 28:19, Joshua 18:13) and El Bethel (Genesis 35:7) remains a major point of contention among academics and Biblical scholars. Luz being synonymous with Bethel may not seem that significant, but it has caused and continues to cause Israel's greatest disasters. The problem is relevant because modern Bethel, north of Jerusalem, on Benjamin's northern border with Ephraim, distorts our understanding of places in Torah when it substitutes for Luz-Bethel, in ancient Jerusalem, on Benjamin's southern and Judah's northern boundary. In the map (above) replace the name "Jerusalem" with "Bethel" and you will immediately see the confusion these dueling Bethel locations could have caused by two of Israel's most politically competitive tribes.

What's the big deal you may ask?  During Israel's ~250 year exile in Egypt and sojourn in the dessert, the true location of Jacob's covenant at Bethel was buried under falling ground cover on Mount Moriah and its location forgotten by Israel. Around 250 years before the tribes of Israel were allotted land under Joshua, Jacob had returned to Luz-Bethel-Ancient Jerusalem where he had made a covenant and took the name Israel (Genesis 35:10). 

Importantly Mount Moriah, the mountain on which Luz-Bethel-Ancient Jerusalem was located would ultimately become the site of Israel's holy altar and temple. As such it would be a prestigious and economically lucrative location. However, from the time Israel returned to its land it was not clear whether Jacob's Bethel was on the southern (with Judah) or northern (with Ephraim) boundary of Benjamin. This exacerbated rivalry between the tribes, Ephraim (from Joseph) and Judah.

The Book of Joshua recorded the land demarcation. After Joshua, despite the temporary tabernacle initially being established in Ephraim's territory, at Shiloh, contentions grew over the site of the future permanent temple. While the tribes were at first preoccupied, defending and settling their land, they could not penetrate the Gihon Spring fortress that the Jebusites had built at Luz and the location of Jacob's Bethel remained hidden. It would be another 300 years before the fortress was captured by King David. During this long period, without a national consciousness about the location of Jacob's Luz-Bethel-Ancient Jerusalem, Bethel on Benjamin's northern boundary with Ephraim became established. Further, Bethel in the north was on the naturally busy route between Bethlehem, ancient Jerusalem (Jebus) and Shiloh, where the tabernacle was located for almost 300 years. 

The site of Jacob's covenant was buried and the national memory of its location lost. Now, after a decade of research the information is crystalizing and the mystery is being solved. Its clear to me the Jebusites, aided by Amorites, Hittites, Moabites and possibly Egyptians were motivated to built the huge fortress over the Gihon Spring. Most likely they were motivated to secure and industrialize water supply and prevent Israel returning to Ancient Jerusalem under Moses or Joshua. Their plan was successful and lasted ~400 years. We now know King David did not re-discover Jacob's Bethel-Luz location, however archaeological evidence indicates the entire area (shown in the high-ridge plan below) was buried with soft soil to preserve it. In excavations sand was taken from above the bedrock and sifted. In it a bullae was discovered from the Kings period and several from periods prior including bronze age artifacts. It has now become clear that the area on the bedrock was first re-discovered by King Uziah before the stone cut channel from the Gihon Spring to the Pool of Siloam and the eastern defensive wall were built. At that time it was decided to re-bury the area and protect it from the much anticipated Assyrian invasion.  

Recent discoveries at Ancient Jerusalem's City of David could be southern Bethel-Luz. They include:

High ridge plan[3] at the Gihon Spring in City of David
ancient Jerusalem. Oil and grain press, altar, covenant stone

Matzevah or the covenant stone was anointed with oil,
perhaps the location of Jacob's assumption of his name Israel

After King Solomon, Northern Bethel, on the boundary of Ephraim and Benjamin was exploited by Jeroboam who used it to demarcate and split the northern tribes of Israel. To do so he played with the historical confusion. He aligned with Egypt, built his palace in Shechem north of Shiloh, built Penuel (and most likely several other sites) and his idolatrous temple and altar in Bethel on Benjamin's northern boundary. Then, he specifically prevented Israel's northern tribes proceeding south to the temple in Jerusalem where his rival, Solomon's son Rehoboam presided (1Kings 12:25). 

Jerusalem's Holy Basis [In chronological order] - [1] Gihon Spring, cave dwelling, Salem (Genesis 7:1) high ridge with altar, oil and grain press. [2] Abraham pitched his tent East of Bethel, West of Ai. (Genesis 12:8) [3] Luz-Bethel high ridge addition of matzevah, upper Gihon pool, fortress and city walls. [4a] Ai destroyed. [4b] Joshua's ambush party (Joshua 8:14) remained in Kidron Valley. [4c] Joshua's troops attack over valley to Ai [5] Palace of King David

The image above describes the features that resolve the ambiguity of Jacob's Bethel. It may turn out that the matzevah (massebah), or standing pillar above the Gihon Spring is truly Jacob's and that the location was indeed obfuscated. If true, it would significantly re-orient scholars to re-consider all they know about the geography that has caused so much confusion. Finally we would restore Jacob to his rightful place, where he originally took the name Israel, where his father was bound by his grandfather who was the link to Israel's ancestral inheritance.

Earthquake at Zion!

The original cement crack - looking north

In 2009 when Benjamin Netanyahu was coming to power in Israel, excavation on the high ridge west of the Gihon Spring revealed a most important artifact.

After the first few months digging

Permission to excavate began with a crack that threatened a potential landslide. This prompted a rapid approval, so the excavation at Beit Shalem above and west of the high ridge of the Gihon Spring began. Within a few months, the team had made great progress removing rubble below the original crack line.

A 30X8m super-tension retaining wall was built to hold the significant section of Mount Moriah’s eastern slope (below, temple mount seen north). Four years to plan and construct, the wall had to be anchored in bedrock at several points and at each level. Casing each anchor was slow going to avoid penetrating and damaging buried artifacts. Approximately 500 cubic meters of rubble and dirt were ultimately removed for archaeological sifting.

Looking north - Temple Mount seen top left

As the retaining wall descended to 3 meters above the bedrock archaeologists began to discover late iron-age Roman era walls and several pottery artefacts.

Roman era jars and oil lamps found in the top frame of walls that were once rooms - looking west

A collapsed section was well preserved in a narrow passage that had been blocked at its east exit by a ~50cm(w) late iron age (North-South) wall section. At 2m above the bedrock, pottery and other artifacts were found in blackened layer dated to the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE. Below the blackened destruction (seen in the image left) layers may yet reveal artifacts that inform about the periods prior.

The video below was made by the Antiquities Authority to describe some of the latest findings.

The excavation discussed above, is behind (west) of the western wall of the high ridge, top of image below. Of particular interest on the high ridge is the impressive ‘tziun’, ‘matzevah’, monument or covenant, now protected by the steel cabinet. Archaeologists confirm it was once protected by soft earth contained between the west and a dismantled east wall. Earliest indicators perhaps as far back as 4500 years are hewn directly into the bedrock including cave dwelling, altar, oil and flour presses and facilities for animal slaughter. Sunlight now reaches the bedrock, the first time in ~3000 years.

The matzevah, monument looking west (Separation Wall - see next image)

The bedrock at the western excavation (behind the wall in the image above) descends eastward toward the matzevah dropping by about 1.5m to the bedrock on the high ridge complex (seen below). The complex was hewn using basic rock implements. The volume of this ~4x8x2(h) meter complex is significant. All walls of the rooms were retained from the bedrock.

According to Biblical dating matzevot were last used at the time of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Here placement on the hewn bedrock floor provides some important dating targets to around ~2000 BCE, pre-dating King David by 1000 years.

Immediately east of the high ridge as it descends toward the valley is the rock cut pool leading from the Gihon Spring. Large volumes of fish-bones, bones of kosher animals and pictographic bullae were discovered in its lowest levels.

Rock cut pool - looking north

Pictographic seals discovered in the sediment of the rock cut pool equate in vloume to all the other non-pictographic seals discovered elsewhere in the City of David. Perhaps indicating something akin to important people throwing pennies in a pond or leaving notes in a wall. This raises questions about the dating of seals (bullae) that were contained to the pool compared to those of the period of kings.

The Matzevah in context of the City of David on Mount Moriah is a significant archaeological event. If academic analysis supports that hewn bedrock coincides with biblical Shem then the Matzevah is likely to converge with dating for the story of Jacob (Genesis 28:10-22). This would further validate the high ridge to Isaac and Abraham, when it became known as “the Place” (Ha Makom). As such it will have significant implications for theological and religious interpretation of events relative to first temple construction and third temple location.

Toward a King!

Tisha B'Av meets Tu B'Av 

Jonathan, the grandson of Moses is one of Tanach’s most complex characters. Perhaps in the tradition of first born sons, we can expect Jonathan's connection with his grandfather to reflect in him the essential traits that we know of Moses.

So what are the qualities of Moses that Jonathan carried into the next generation? What, of his grandfather's causes motivated him to struggle for and express in his own life? Tribal structure is a rigid mosaic that strongly influences personalities, against this backdrop I explore Jonathan.

The information I used to write this is from and based on the compilation known as Me’Am Lo’ez as translated by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan.

After Israel’s re-entry to their land each tribe conquered and settled their allotment except one. The last tribe, Dan had been abandoned, left to struggle against the mighty Philistines one of Israel’s greatest opponents, but they failed in their quest.

At the time, Jonathan a priest of the Levite tribe had distanced himself from the decaying priesthood in the Tabernacle of Shiloh, the territory of Ephraim. Nearby, a competing temple of idolatry attracted Jonathan and Micah, its founder enlisted him as high priest.

Without their full land allotment, leaders of Dan advanced to conquer and settle land in the extreme north. On one trip they forcefully raised Micah's temple and moved it, with Jonathan to the mountain opposite the valley of the temple in Shiloh. Perhaps a statement to the other tribes who had not fully supported them in their original conquest.

On one occasion Jonathan, The Levite priest and his concubine were traveling south-north from Bethlehem in Yehudah through Jerusalem (Jebus) to the area of Shiloh in Ephraim. It was nearing sun set, but he pushed on past Jebus, the fortified city until he reached Gibeah in Benjamin a territory sandwiched between rival tribes Yehudah and Ephraim.

The residents of Gibeah were unfriendly and refused to accommodate them until one elderly man opened his heart. That night certain townsfolk violently threatened the old man and his guests demanding the concubine be released to them. Eventually Jonathan capitulated, the concubine was gang raped and left to die in the cold night at the front door of the man’s house.   

Jonathan was incensed especially because the elders refused to hand over the perpetrators or bring them to justice. Jonathan journeyed home, where he cut her body in 12 pieces and sent a piece to each tribal leader demanding they bring Gibeah to justice. The tribe of Benjamin refused to concede. This motivated Israel’s first major civil war and men of the tribe of Benjamin were almost entirely wiped out.      

Once the tribal leaders realized what they had done to the tribe of Benjamin they instituted a leniency among tribes to repopulate it. They allowed inter-tribal marriages for the benefit of the women of Benjamin. Today that is the festival of Tu B'Av, which is 6 days after the temple destruction's on Tisha B'Av.

The corruption of leadership and justice was a battle Jonathan silently witnessed and eventually rose to crush. First it was the corrupt priesthood, which he abandoned for an alternative existence. Next he was transplanted from serenity to politically inspired, inter-tribal religious distortion of the justice his grandfather instituted. Finally he was stirred to act and unite the tribes against one of their own to uphold justice.

The expression of Moses, through his grandsons actions finally motivated the nation to seek a leader who would unite them. That was a job for young Samuel, who had been appointed high priest at the end of the Tabernacle period in Shiloh. His first choice was King Saul of the tribe of Benjamin who was weakened through idolatry and corrupt belief. In this sense apparently Jonathan’s actions resembled his grandfathers to fight corruption and uphold justice while Samuel sought peace.    

In Egypt, several hundred years before these events Ephraim’s brother Menashe was once represented as the translator who instigated tensions between Joseph (father of Ephraim and Menashe), Yehuda and Benjamin. However, in the writings of Samuel he poetically tainted Jonathan with a super-scripted Jonathan son of Gershom son of Menashe, which in Hebrew reads Moshe (if the superscript 'n' is removed). Rivalry between Ephraim and Yehudah was fierce, but Yehudah would prevail and ultimately the permanent temples were built in Jerusalem.     

The basis of a temple is justice for peace! Not simply rigid law enforced on a people to their detriment as it was in Gibeah, nor corrupt practices that suppressed leaders who would otherwise benefit the majority. Like Moses, Jonathan struggled for a temple culture that would balance the nation and a justice that would permit and motivate all people to realize their true potential, but just like Saul, his justice suffered his corrupted faith.