Water, Water Everywhere, Will Archaeologists Drink?

On the eastern slopes of the City of David, a Middle Bronze Age water system, remnants of a reservoir and a water channel was carbon dated to 1515 BCE. There is no other later evidence of water supply to rooms of the rock-cut-temple. No alternative water system exists, yet despite the absence of later evidence some archaeologists, still insist that the rock-cut-temple, in its present form, should instead be dated to the Iron Age. Academic isolation and over simplification of context, distorts understanding at this complex, ancient location. However, the video below offers the most comprehensive explanation. Before viewing, it's important to illustrate the passage of water as it once flowed to the rooms, more than 3500 years ago (follow the Area U/C map below). 

Room 2 (with tethered animal for slaughter) 

Room 1 (with impression of sacrificial altar on platform)

Water passage. Room 2 (center-foreground)
 Room 1 (upper right-background)

 

Area U water system leading to Area C rooms (1 and 2)

The video explains that the rock-cut-temple was active up until 1500 BCE (Middle Bronze), then buried, out of site until 700 BCE (Iron), exposed at that time, reburied during wall construction and finally excavated 13 years ago.

Jerusalem and Jacob - Calling Archaeology Detectives

Fifty years and tens of millions of dollars have failed to explain 700 years of missing evidence from ancient Jerusalem's eastern slope, at the City of David. The gap perpetuates confusion among archaeologists, who otherwise would prefer to date the significant rock-cut-temple to the Iron Age. You see, between the Middle Bronze (3500 years ago) and Iron Age (2800 years ago) no direct evidence, in the rock-cut-temple, has been discovered and that presents a problem. 

Rock-cut-temple on eastern slope after ground cover was finally cleared in 2023.
The adjacent house, which was built 20 years ago, on compressed ground cover, is now suspended on steel plates with pilons to bedrock

Around the rock-cut-temple, there is undisputed, carbon dated evidence of occupation and Middle Bronze Age use up until 3500 years ago, then +700 years of nothing, and plenty Iron Age evidence after that. The dearth of Iron Age evidence, starting around 2800 years ago, dominates academic papers and influences narratives about the significant rock-cut-temple, yet this evidence gap, that screams the loudest, is ignored by archaeologists. In this case the absence of evidence proves the evidence!

If not for two samples (#9964/5) of organic matter, trapped below and above plaster layers of a man made channel that once fed water into at least the southern-most rock-cut-room, archaeologists would have a more simplified proof of Iron Age origins.

Sample #9964 lay undisturbed, protected by natural ground cover, above the plaster channel for 3500 years. Sample #9965 was protected by the plaster layers of the channel above it. 

At blue line B (map below) the U (Sample #9964) and X (Sample #9965)

"B" marks the excavation site of organic samples, from above and below the plastered water channel.
Other samples #9181/9962 (top) and building 1948 (right) dated between 1820-1510 BCE. 

Water channel flowed from a reservoir to the bedrock floor.
No evidence of an Iron Age water channel and reservoir has been located 

The barrage of published Iron Age evidence and the inferred dating of the rock-cut-temple is refuted by carbon dated samples at several locations. However, most powerful are #9964 and #9965 two 3500 year old, Middle Bronze Age, organic samples that date the water channel construction and last use. Similar plaster layers, on the bedrock, in the western, rear end of a storage room, present insufficient proof of Iron Age shaping of bed rock. Such plaster remnants, dated to the Iron Age, may have been laid by Iron Age occupiers of the homes constructed above the bedrock.

A solution is not easily forthcoming because absence of evidence is an insufficient academic standard of proof. The water channel remains the strongest proof of use and there is no other evidence of water service to the temple. Unfortunately, +700 years after the water channel was last used, in preparation for construction of the City's eastern defensive wall, the rock-cut-temple was cleared to the bedrock to accommodate the 4 meter wide wall. Immediately west, the water channel was recently traced, running, from the remains of a reservoir (at blue B), underneath Iron Age homes to the southernmost rock-cut-room. However, archaeologists won't confirm that the channels Middle Bronze Age construction is directly linked to construction of the rock-cut-temple. Instead, they promote an alternative, unproven, theory that the water channel was cut (at blue B) by constructors and at the southern rock-cut-room during its Iron Age construction. This hypothesis only exacerbates the absence of an Iron Age water system.

Clearance of the area by Iron Age wall constructors, remains the best explanation for the absence of direct evidence, but what, if any direct evidence, was cleared from the bedrock at that time remains a mystery and whether the rock-cut-temple had been buried under ground cover, for +700 years, before the wall constructors cleared it, remains inconclusive. 

Any suggestion that #9964, and other samples #9181 and #9962 survived, in situ, above ground, for +700 years, while Iron Age Area U and rock-cut-temple was apparently constructed, exposed or in active use is preposterous. More likely the last use of the rock-cut-rooms is also tied to the date of sample #9964 and construction of the rock-cut-rooms dated to sample #9965 sometime between 1615 BCE and 1880 BCE or prior.

Accumulated ground cover concealing the rock-cut-temple site as it was in 2012.
Adjacent house built on compressed ground cover.

Promotion of an academic theory for Iron Age construction of the rock-cut-temple is further refuted by surviving evidence immediately north (#9181 and #9962), of sample #9964 (from the water channel) and east, from below building 1948, dated to 1820 BCE and in mortar 1.2m above bedrock dated to 1605 BCE. These additional samples strongly increase the probability of a Middle Bronze Age origin and suggest that a significant Iron Age construction of the rock-cut-temple would have disrupted at least #9181 and #9962 laying bare on the surface of these excavated areas. 

Academia faces significant challenges in admitting a Middle Bronze Age origin because of Iron Age bias in tangential data and the Biblical alignment to the archaeological last use, defined by at least sample #9964. The period of carbon dating overlaps patriarch Jacob who, Jewish commentators attest stayed briefly on Mount Moriah. According to Biblical chronology Jacob's first encounter on Mount Moriah took place in 1573 BCE. Then, he and his family arrived on Mount Moriah in 1553 BCE and left the region in 1523 BCE. Jacob immigrated to Egypt, where his descendants remained for 250 years before they returned to their ancestral land. The overlapping 100 year use of the water channel (1535 BCE) with time of Jacob makes this discovery remarkable particularly because of its potentially exciting context to the  rock-cut-temple and matzevah found within the temple location. According to the Bible Jacob erected a matzevah at this location (Genesis 35:14).

The matzevah, "standing stone" or anointing pillar at the rock-cut-temple.

The video above tells the comprehensive story.

Jerusalem's Temple Zero Opposes The Sun!

A brief about key Biblical events and their consistent interpretations, in Judaism, will help you to better consider the remarkable archaeological discoveries on the eastern slope of Mount Moriah, Ancient Jerusalem in the City of David. If the developing story continues it will be impossible to contain the importance of the location to the realm of special interests and tourism. 

Jerusalem's perennial water source, the Gihon Spring played a central role in ancient Jewish teachings about that unique location. After the events that diminished Adam and Eve's heightened spiritual state, it is taught Adam purified himself in the waters of the Gihon Spring for 130 years before they reunited and populated the pre-flood world. The olive branch of Noah's dove is said to come from the same mountainous area where Noah planted a vineyard. The Bible informs us that Abraham arrived to the "ancient hill" where he pitched his tent east of Beit El, west of Ai and built an altar, to which he returned. He tithed his wealth to MalchiTzedek, the high priest of Salem. It's taught that Abraham contributed "yira", meaning awe of that place, to constitute the name Yira-Salem, Jerusalem.

Unanimously teachers identify ancient Jerusalem's Mount Moriah as the place Abraham offered his son Isaac, as a sacrifice. That's where where Abraham turned to the West, that is, the site of the Sanctuary, and turned his back toward the sun contrary to common practice. The Bible writes that Isaac's son Jacob "stumbled upon that place", he had realized it's inherent sanctity. There he erected a 'standing stone' on which he made a covenant to build 'Beit El" The House of God, the name he gave to that place. According to Biblical scholars, Jacob made his covenant in 1576 BCE.

Around 3250 years ago, 1250 BCE, Joshua restored the fledgling Jewish nation to its inherited land. 

300 years later, the Bible relates that King David reigned in Hebron for 7 years. Then, his army took control over the strategic water passage, underground in Mount Moriah. Water carriers used it daily as their route from the Gihon Spring into the upper city where the main population lived. With control over water David became King of this mountain. He established his palace and united his tribal Kingdom before his son King Solomon realized King David's dream to build Israel's first permanent temple.

Paleolithic through the Early Iron Age 

Development of Mount Moriah and greater Jerusalem

Paleolithic and chalcolithic discoveries at Mount Moriah are few and concentrated around the Gihon Spring at the areas it emptied into the eastern valley. Toward the end of the Middle Bronze Age the scant populations in the eastern valley moved up the hill and the city began periods of expanded development. Abraham, Isaac and Jacob coincided with abundant Middle Bronze archaeology and Joshua with Late Bronze Age archaeology. King David coincided with the onset of the Iron Age (image of city top right).   

Iron Age terraces on
the steep easter slope

Cut through the mountain at the Gihon Spring
 and Iron Age, Israelite City Walls

In 2010 a major discovery was found under 20,000 cubic meters of rubble, half-way up the eastern slope. Buried under the Israelite City Wall lead archaeologist Eli Shukron discovered the remnants of a rock-cut temple, it surprised everyone. After several years of excavation insufficient evidence failed to establish the last used date of the temple. But, in 2018 a study by Weizmann Institute and Cambridge University conclusively resolved the 'last use' issue, by dating organic matter found under and on top of the man-made plaster layer lining a water channel that fed into one or more of the rooms.

 

North end

South end

The Temple Zero excavation (map below) illustrates the significant undertaking that produced the necessary elements for dating. The thick red wall on the northern end, W20005 is the remnant of the Israelite City Wall first built around the time of King Uzziah and Hezekiah, 2600-2700 years ago, 600-700 BCE. Originally the wall continued south, over the bedrock of the Temple Zero complex and joined remnant W20001 on the southern end.

The seeds and organic material from the water channel were located immediately adjacent to wall W17081, and Structure 17044. They were carbon dated to 1500-1600 BCE, 3500-3600 years ago indicating that the channel was last used at that time because the sample above the plaster was undisturbed until sometime in the Iron Age boulders (the red structures) secured it until its recent discovery. The carbon dated material clearly established 1500-1600 BCE as the water channels last date of use, which coincides with Biblical Jacob, the finding was contextual to other dated material, a  stunning result! 

Of thousands of artifacts discovered in the City of David only the standing stone or matzevah of Temple Zero remained complete and in situ, despite the massive Iron Age defensive wall that was built right over it the constructors preserved it in soft soil. It is the significant artifact in the temple that includes an oil press, grain press, altar for sacrifices, holding pen, animal processing, storage, water channel and all the features required of the Jewish temples that were built by and after King Solomon. 

Matzevah on Western Wall

Whether this is the standing stone Jacob, used to enter his covenant, is difficult to assess but, similar to the first and second temples, Temple Zero is oriented to oppose sun worship, which was the common practice of Bronze Age nations.

Altar platform on Western Wall

Priests performing morning services on the altar would have to have turned their backs to the sun, which would be an insult to sun-worshipers. Therefore, its unlikely the installation of this unique matzevah would have been inconsistent with the orientation of the altar and other features. 

Low tethers for young animals, below knee height.

Rituals adopted into Jewish culture emanated 1000 years before the formal establishment of the Torah Nation at Mount Sinai around 3300 years ago. The following 300+ years, before King David, the nation became more familiar with their Biblically prescribed laws, one of which prohibits the erection of a standing stone or matzevah, because of its post-Biblical association with idolatry. For Temple Zero to be Biblically compliant with Jewish law, its erection would have to precede Biblical law, when use of a matzevah was still permitted.

Another law requires that animals, offered as a sacrifice, must be older than 8 days old and unblemished. Typically this meant animals in their first year because they still retained perfect physical features. Tethers secured small animals, tied low on the bedrock walls (images above) and aided their inspection by priests prior to them being sacrificed and offered on the altar. 

The principal features of Temple Zero parallels Biblical law and Jewish ritual emphasized by dating the last use of the water channel to Jacob. The case for Temple Zero's existence and use prior to Jacob and the final form of its features, as recently discovered, invite complex questions related to Biblical events at this ancient location and whether the Jewish people and the modern nation of Israel are obligated by its emergence.  

 

Jerusalem's Temple Zero Underground

Temple Zero Excavation (north end)

Temple Zero Excavation (south end)

More than 500 years before King David Temple Zero, in Ancient Jerusalem's City of David had been constructed, used regularly and completely buried by falling groundcover. Whether King David ever re-discovered Temple Zero, or King Uzziah or Hezekiah were the first to re-discover it is debated here. Recently excavated elements, located on east and west adjacencies of Temple Zero, under virgin soil, in an ash layer above bedrock and a defensive wall prove the hypothesis that King David never discovered it. The discovery presents Temple Zero as a legitimate contender for the altar of the future temple in Jerusalem.

  

Seeds of wheat and barley, in a delicate 2m long, 1cm thick layer of ash, 5cm above bedrock, lay undisturbed from Middle Bronze Age through the Iron Age period of King David until King Uzziah and remained in place until their recent extraction. This delicate ash layer was preserved only because soft dirt had accumulated above it. In the ash, one seed was preserved under the wall of a late Iron Age building the other under collapsed rocks from surrounding Iron Age constructions. These seeds were carbon dated ~3290 years before the present (using 1950 as the reference age) and corelated to Middle Bronze Age archaeology of 1605-1510 BCE. 

Area U in pink (also map below).
Western edge of Temple Zero (greyed) in center of pink border

Water channel (Blue)

Iron Age wall constructors would first probe soft dirt until they discovered underlying bedrock sufficient to support wall construction. Then, they would remove soil and other moveable elements until they located the full length of bedrock necessary to support the wall width and length. On that they built their wall.

The Iron Age buildings were constructed after the wall, along Temple Zero's westernmost edge of Area U (map below) on the elevated edge of its rock-cut-rooms. The bedrock edge drops down the sheer east facing walls, of hollowed bedrock rooms 1.5-2m to the bedrock floor of the Temple Zero complex. Well before the Iron Age, the hollowed out rooms had once been filled with accumulated sand or natural dirt, that fell down the slope burying Temple Zero to a depth of  at least 1.5-2m. 

Red dots mark carbon dated evidence
  Iron Age walls (red) on western edge
of Temple Zero's rock-cut-rooms

Heights above sea level

Less than 10 meters east, further down slope toward the valley, additional evidence was found, between bedrock and leveling rocks supporting a Middle Bronze Age wall (red dots on the image above-right). This indicates earth below the supporting rocks of the walls base had been used 150-200 years before the seeds trapped in the ash layer (further to the west). However, around 1m above the bedrock additional evidence, taken from the walls' mortar, revealed entrapped seeds of a similar date as the ash layer seeds. Therefore, the walls foundation layers were constructed on a base above bedrock more than 150 years earlier, shown in the image below. 

Large rock placed on smaller supporting rocks
near the bedrock base, site of earlier dated evidence

Curiously the study identified an unusual 17th century gap in evidence, indicating that the entire area went out of use during the 50-75 years that preceded the ash layer seeds and the building of this small Middle Bronze Age wall.  

This evidence at the rock-cut-rooms of Temple Zero strongly points to a natural burial, by slippage, wash, wind and accumulation. It is widely known to archaeologists that a location on a steep slope, such as this site, on the east of Mount Moriah would naturally accumulate sufficient dirt to be entirely covered over within 5 years. Complete burial would naturally obfuscate the existence of Temple Zero's rock-cut-rooms.

Since Temple Zero was buried underground sometime in the 17th century it would not have been used for active worship during the 10th century reign of King David because the evidence in the drainage channel was undisturbed. The next time all of Temple Zero's rock-cut-rooms were exposed was during the bedrock discovery phase, required for construction of Jerusalem's massive eastern defensive wall, in the 8th century leading up to or during the reign of King Uzziah. Almost 1000 years after the seeds became trapped in the ash layer, constructors of the massive defensive wall discovered, preserved and re-buried Temple Zero where it remained for another 2600 years until it was recently discovered in 2011.

The implications of this study are important because they provide a credible reason why Temple Zero was never discovered by King David and how the fragile matzevah (Stone of Israel), located in Temple Zero survived in its original place, preserved in soft sand, in tact all these years. One can only imagine what King Uzziah’s Iron Age wall constructors must have thought when they discovered and preserved it for our generation?

Finding Zion!

A decade of persistent effort by the El Ad foundation, The City of David and archaeologists from Israel's Antiquities Authority has produced sensational results on the eastern slope of Jerusalem's Mount Moriah. More than ever before, evidence and context have reduced events to a narrow range of comprehensible theories. Now, we are left to ponder the most perplexing question of all...

The Gihon Spring, near the Kidron Valley floor was ancient Jerusalem's only perpetual water source. It sustained Paleolithic, Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age populations who lived in proximity to the valley until around 4000-3800 years ago. In the Middle Bronze Age, commensurate with Biblical Noah, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob populations migrated 50+ vertical meters further up the steep east facing slope to live on the mountains' ridge. For these occupants, access and secure passage of water, from the spring became crucial to successful survival. 

Mount Moriah, one rock

During the past 15 years several key discoveries have informed our knowledge of the eastern slope: 

1. Cave K 

Recent excavations identified a tightly packed, richly layered floor that should reveal information about the historical and chronological use of the cave. Work, presently underway indicates a usage spanning terminal Iron Age back to the Bronze Age. The cave was an important accommodation for occupants of the lower mountain. The cave exit/entrance, on its north-west end once connected with Passage XVIII that runs west, connecting Cave K with a rock-cut-temple around 10 vertical meters higher up the slope. 

North Entrance

Level crossing, from Cave K over the lower bedrock once provided convenient access to water from the Gihon Spring.

2. Passage XVIII

The remnant of this bedrock passage climbs up from the roof level of Cave K to the rock-cut-temple, due west, at a steep grade 10m further up the eastern face. The Cave K end of the passage appears to have been quarried or fissured and breaks lower level access to passage XVIII. Organic materials, found in mortar of a wall built in this passage was carbon dated to 3700-3500 years ago. This evidence aligned with similar materials discovered in a drainage channel along the west boundary immediately behind the rock-cut-temple. The organic material indicated that construction on the passage had occurred sometime during this period and provides evidence of its use during the middle bronze age.

3. Rock-Cut-Temple

Excavation to expose Rock-Cut-Temple

This is arguably the most fascinating complex of Mount Moriah's eastern face. The temple cut in the  rock contains all of the necessary elements for worship, similar to the practices that followed in King Solomon's First Temple as widely document in ancient Jewish texts. The features include (looking West); 

Matzevah in the cabinet (left) - Altar Platform, liquids channel (right)

Matzevah

Altar platform and liquids channel

A Matzevah or standing stone was forbidden by Biblical law for use in any Jewish worship. Therefore, the practice ceased around 3300 years ago, some 300 years before King David arrived on Jerusalem's Mount Moriah. Prior to that, use of a matzevah was permitted as referred in Biblical Jacob and has been widely reported in archaeology. However, this humble matzevah is unique in all Israeli archaeology. The altars' liquids channel and altar platform once supported a stone altar on which animal sacrifices were offered.

To the left (south) of the matzevah 'V' cuts in the bedrock used for slaughtering, processing and preparing animal sacrifices. The room also contains a sunken mortar for crushing grains. To the right (north) of the altar platform an olive press for preparing pure olive oil, of the highest grade to be used for anointing and preparing baked sacrificial offerings.

North over the olive press

Looking north over the oil press, passage XIX is terminated by Wall 108 (see map below). The northern wall W108, of the double wall was excavated and dated along with W109 to the Middle Bronze Age. It is still unknown as to why the double wall was built and this remains one of the more perplexing elements of the temple complex.  

4. Wall 108 and 109

The double wall complex was one of the most challenging constructions in the City of David and certainly on the eastern face. Massive boulders stacked to a height of up to 5 meters had to be hauled up, or lowered down the slope and precisely placed. It was a serious construction requiring a labor force greater than the size of the entire local population of the mountain. It is presently anticipated that the passage between the double walls was sealed, a ziggurat type structure that led worshipers on an ascent to passage XIX where they would turn left (south) and proceed to the rock-cut-temple complex. 

A recent discovery (see image below) confirmed that the double walls abutt passage XIX, but that W108 (north, top of picture) extended through the passage further west blocking north-south access. W109 meets the passage and would have ensured foot traffic, between the walls, was guided to the south along passage XIX toward the rock-cut-temple complex.  

Looking North, at the top, large steps
between W108 (north) and W109

5. Defensive wall 

As confirmed by surviving organic material, 1000 years after the rock-cut-temple were last used, toward the end of the iron age, a defensive city wall was built on the eastern face of the mountain. The wall was constructed over the rock-cut-temple and soft sand (discovered in 2011) was used to fill the spaces between the wall and the bedrock to protect the matzevah from damage by the heavy rocks of the wall. That decision, most likely by King Uzziah or Hezekiah, preserved the matzevah for 2600 years until it was discovered in-situ by archaeologist Eli Shukron in 2011. However, the wall constructors cleared the rock-cut-temple artifacts leaving only a small amount of Middle Bronze age pottery in the room adjacent to the altar.

Significant scale wall (looking north).
 Top right of the wall intersects W108.

6. Question

If the rock-cut-temple was last used around 3500 years ago (the time of the surviving organic matter, particularly the remnant discovered in the drainage channel) it is conceivable the entire rock-cut-temple lay buried under earth and silt, unused for almost 1000 years before Hezekiah's wall was built, 2600 years ago in the lead up to the destruction of the first temple. The wall constructors would have exposed the rock-cut-temple, its artifacts and the matzevah causing the King at that time to decide what next? We now know that the defensive wall was constructed over the rock-cut-temple, but the constructors preserved the matzevah indicating respect and honor. If Hezekiah was king at the time and believed the matzevah were an object of idolatry his constructors would certainly have destroyed it.

On this evidence we must ask whether King David, who was compelled to this mountain, ever discovered the rock-cut-temple that existed 700 years before he became King?

2 Samuel 5:7–9 tells us; David conquered the “fortress of Zion that is the City of David,” after which he is said to have built “from the Millo inward”. The fortress David captured (thought to be the Spring Tower, see map above including W108 and W109) gave him full control over the precious water supply lines inward to the Gihon Spring. That's all it took to conquer the city 50m up the hill that was dependent on the Spring. 

Did the 700 year legacy of priesthood and ancestral history, at the rock-cut-temple motivate David to capture and locate Zion? Did he ever find it?

Beit El, Jerusalem - Did King David Know?

For 10+ years I patiently waited for news, finally it came. Using carbon dating on seeds, twigs and dirt, Regev et al unambiguously showed that the Rock-Cut-Rooms, on the eastern slope of Mount Moriah are sandwiched between two sources of evidence dated to the Middle Bronze Age approximately 3500 and 3800 years ago.

Bronze Age Rock-Cut-Rooms

This is important because all archaeological evidence on the bedrock of these rooms was removed in the Iron Age II, around 2600 years ago when builders for King Hezekiah constructed the recently discovered eastern city wall (W20005 - W20021). Based on this evidence, before the rooms were first uncovered 2600 years ago they lay buried, out of use for some 900 years. No evidence of this time-frame showed up in the carbon dating report. 

Area U and Rock-cut Rooms
 (V. Essman and O. Rose)
Approximate evidence locations marked in red.

You following this? These rooms were in use up till 3500 years ago, then they stopped being used for 900 years, then 2600 years ago they were discovered, uncovered and immediately buried, finally they were re-discovered and uncovered again in 2011. 

East-side evidence samples

West-side evidence samples

Stunningly, the flimsy matzevah at the west end of room 4 (Area U map above) was intact as far back as 3600 years ago, the time of biblical Jacob. This perfectly fits the time-frame of evidence discovered on both sides of the rock-cut-rooms. Further, as the evidence stretches back to 3700 or 3800 years it suggests the rooms were actively in use at that time.

Matzevah (Pillar) of Jacob?

Eli Shukron, the archaeologist who excavated these rooms is unequivocal, this is the first temple that ever existed on Mount Moriah, a thousand years before the First Temple of King Solomon. If this is the matzevah of Jacob (Genesis 28:18, 28:22, 31:13, 31:45, 35:14, 35:20), then this is also the Beit El where Abraham built an altar, tithed to Malchi-Tzedek and offered his son, Isaac. Could it be?

Context to slope of original passage (Parker XVIII)

between Gihon Spring and rock-cut-rooms